Complete Reference List
The following references have been cited across all book chapters and discussions. This list is organized by part and category for ease of verification.
Part I: Origins (30,000–2000 BCE)
- Baur, Jenny. "Re-examining the Ishango Bone: Patterns and Possibilities." 2025.
- Bogoshi, J., Naidoo, K., and Webb, J. "The Oldest Mathematical Artefact." The Mathematical Gazette. Vol. 71, No. 458, 1987.
- Everett, Caleb. "Numerals and Number Systems." In Numbers and the Making of Us. Harvard University Press, 2017.
- Huylebrouck, Dirk. "The Bone That Began the Space Odyssey." The Mathematical Intelligencer. Vol. 18, No. 4, 1996.
- Huylebrouck, Dirk, and Pletser, Vladimir. "The Ishango Bone: A 20,000-Year-Old Mathematical Tool." Proceedings of the Canadian Society for History and Philosophy of Mathematics. 1999.
- Joseph, George Gheverghese. The Crest of the Peacock: Non-European Roots of Mathematics. 3rd ed. Princeton University Press, 2011.
- Keller, Olivier. "The Fables of Ishango, or the Irresistible Temptation of Mathematical Fiction." 2010.
- Marshack, Alexander. The Roots of Civilization: The Cognitive Beginnings of Man's First Art, Symbol and Notation. McGraw-Hill, 1972.
- Overmann, Karenleigh A., et al. "The Ishango Bone: A 20,000-Year-Old Mathematical Enigma." In The Oxford Handbook of Cognitive Archaeology. Oxford University Press, 2025.
- Rudman, Peter S. The Babylonian Theorem. Prometheus Books, 2006.
- Zaslavsky, Claudia. Africa Counts: Number and Pattern in African Cultures. 3rd ed. Lawrence Hill Books, 1999.
- de Heinzelin, Jean. "Ishango." Institut des Parcs Nationaux du Congo Belge. 1957.
- Royal Belgian Institute of Natural Sciences, Brussels. "The Ishango Bone." Permanent collection.
- Barker, Graeme. The Agricultural Revolution in Prehistory. Oxford University Press, 2006.
- McCarter, Susan Foster. Neolithic. Routledge, 2007.
- Cunliffe, Barry. By Steppe, Desert, and Ocean. Oxford University Press, 2015.
- Sherratt, Andrew. "Plough and Pastoralism." In Pattern of the Past, edited by Ian Hodder et al. Cambridge University Press, 1981.
- Mauss, Marcel. The Gift. 1925. Translated by W.D. Halls. W.W. Norton, 1990.
- Graeber, David. Debt: The First 5,000 Years. Melville House, 2011.
- Malinowski, Bronisław. Argonauts of the Western Pacific. Routledge, 1922.
- Sahlins, Marshall. Stone Age Economics. Aldine, 1972.
- Nissen, Hans J. The Early History of the Ancient Near East, 9000–2000 B.C. University of Chicago Press, 1988.
- Postgate, J.N. Early Mesopotamia. Routledge, 1992.
- Schmandt-Besserat, Denise. How Writing Came About. University of Texas Press, 1996.
- Van De Mieroop, Marc. A History of the Ancient Near East. 3rd ed. Wiley-Blackwell, 2015.
- Hudson, Michael. "How Interest Rates Were Set, 2500 BC–1000 AD." Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient 43, no. 2 (2000): 132–161.
- Goetzmann, William N. Money Changes Everything. Princeton University Press, 2016.
- Steinkeller, Piotr. "The Renting of Fields in Early Mesopotamia." Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient 24, no. 2 (1981): 113–145.
- Hebrew Bible: Exodus, Leviticus, Deuteronomy, Amos, Isaiah.
- Aristotle. Politics. Loeb Classical Library. Harvard University Press, 1932.
- Lichtheim, Miriam. Ancient Egyptian Literature. 3 vols. University of California Press, 1973–1980.
- Assmann, Jan. Ma'at: Gerechtigkeit und Unsterblichkeit im Alten Ägypten. C.H. Beck, 1990.
- The Laws of Manu. Translated by Wendy Doniger and Brian K. Smith. Penguin, 1991.
- North, Robert. Sociology of the Biblical Jubilee. Pontifical Biblical Institute, 1954.
- Lowery, Richard H. Sabbath and Jubilee. Chalice Press, 2000.
Part II: Consolidation (Medieval & Renaissance)
- Aquinas, Thomas. Summa Theologica. Second Part of the Second Part, Questions 78 on usury.
- Baldwin, John W. The Medieval Theories of the Just Price. American Philosophical Society, 1959.
- Le Goff, Jacques. Your Money or Your Life: Economy and Religion in the Middle Ages. Zone Books, 1988.
- Noonan, John T. The Scholastic Analysis of Usury. Harvard University Press, 1957.
- Wood, Diana. Medieval Economic Thought. Cambridge University Press, 2002.
- de Roover, Raymond. The Rise and Decline of the Medici Bank, 1397–1494. Harvard University Press, 1963.
- Goldthwaite, Richard A. The Economy of Renaissance Florence. Johns Hopkins University Press, 2009.
- Hunt, Edwin S., and James M. Murray. A History of Business in Medieval Europe, 1200–1550. Cambridge University Press, 1999.
- Pacioli, Luca. Summa de Arithmetica. Venice, 1494.
- Spufford, Peter. Money and Its Use in Medieval Europe. Cambridge University Press, 1988.
- Gilchrist, John. The Church and Economic Activity in the Middle Ages. Macmillan, 1969.
- Little, Lester K. Religious Poverty and the Profit Economy in Medieval Europe. Cornell University Press, 1978.
- Menning, Carol Bresnahan. Charity and State in Late Renaissance Italy: The Monte di Pietà of Florence. Cornell University Press, 1993.
- Pullan, Brian. Rich and Poor in Renaissance Venice. Harvard University Press, 1971.
- Crosby, Alfred W. The Measure of Reality: Quantification and Western Society, 1250–1600. Cambridge University Press, 1997.
- Poovey, Mary. A History of the Modern Fact. University of Chicago Press, 1998.
- Weber, Max. The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism. Scribner, 1958.
- Goodman, Martin. Rome and Jerusalem. Allen Lane, 2007.
- Sanders, E.P. Jesus and Judaism. Fortress Press, 1985.
- The Bible. Gospels: Matthew, Mark, Luke, John.
Part III: Colonial Extraction – A Global Pattern
- Graeber, David, and Wengrow, David. The Dawn of Everything. Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2021.
- Witgen, Michael. Seeing Red. Omohundro Institute/University of North Carolina Press, 2022.
- Deloria, Vine Jr. Custer Died for Your Sins. University of Oklahoma Press, 1969.
- Marx, Karl. Capital, Volume I. 1867.
- Naoroji, Dadabhai. Poverty and Un-British Rule in India. 1901.
- Dutt, Romesh Chunder. The Economic History of India Under Early British Rule. 1902.
- Patnaik, Utsa. The Long Transition. Tulika Books, 2017.
- Dubois, Laurent. Haiti: The Aftershocks of History. Metropolitan Books, 2012.
- de Cauna, Jacques. Haiti: The First Black Republic. 2004.
- Connolly, Emilie. "Fiduciary Colonialism." J19 8, no. 1 (2020).
- Petrocelli, Rachel. "Transactional Culture in Colonial Dakar." [Citation details needed]
- New Laws of the Indies (Leyes Nuevas). 1542.
- General Allotment Act (Dawes Act). U.S. Congress, 1887.
- PROMESA Act. U.S. Congress, 2016.
- French parliamentary records (1825).
- Crédit Industriel et Commercial bank archives.
- Elliott, J.H. Empires of the Atlantic World. Yale University Press, 2006.
- Hemming, John. The Conquest of the Incas. Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1970.
- Israel, Jonathan I. Dutch Primacy in World Trade. Oxford University Press, 1989.
- Neal, Larry. The Rise of Financial Capitalism. Cambridge University Press, 1990.
- Pike, Ruth. Enterprise and Adventure. Cornell University Press, 1966.
- Davis, Mike. Late Victorian Holocausts. Verso, 2001.
- Fieldhouse, D.K. Economics and Empire. Cornell University Press, 1973.
- Guha, Ranajit. A Rule of Property for Bengal. Duke University Press, 1996.
- Rodney, Walter. How Europe Underdeveloped Africa. Bogle-L'Ouverture Publications, 1972.
- Bowen, H.V. The Business of Empire. Cambridge University Press, 2006.
- Chaudhuri, K.N. The Trading World of Asia. Cambridge University Press, 1978.
- Gaastra, Femme S. The Dutch East India Company. Walburg Pers, 2003.
- Stern, Philip J. The Company-State. Oxford University Press, 2011.
- Beckert, Sven. Empire of Cotton. Knopf, 2014.
- Blackburn, Robin. The Making of New World Slavery. Verso, 1997.
- Curtin, Philip D. The Rise and Fall of the Plantation Complex. 2nd ed. Cambridge University Press, 1998.
- Mintz, Sidney W. Sweetness and Power. Viking, 1985.
- Williams, Eric. Capitalism and Slavery. University of North Carolina Press, 1944.
Part IV: Industrialization (19th Century)
- Ferguson, Niall. The House of Rothschild. 2 vols. Viking, 1998–1999.
- Ferguson, Niall. The Cash Nexus. Basic Books, 2001.
- Chernow, Ron. The House of Morgan. Atlantic Monthly Press, 1990.
- Kindleberger, Charles P. Manias, Panics, and Crashes. Basic Books, 1978.
- Kindleberger, Charles P. A Financial History of Western Europe. 2nd ed. Oxford University Press, 1993.
- Reinhart, Carmen M., and Kenneth S. Rogoff. This Time Is Different. Princeton University Press, 2009.
- Polanyi, Karl. The Great Transformation. Farrar & Rinehart, 1944.
- Thompson, E.P. The Making of the English Working Class. Victor Gollancz, 1963.
- Goodwyn, Lawrence. The Populist Moment. Oxford University Press, 1978.
- Postel, Charles. The Populist Vision. Oxford University Press, 2007.
- Green, Hardy. The Company Town. Basic Books, 2010.
- Daniel, Pete. The Shadow of Slavery. University of Illinois Press, 1972.
- Shifflett, Crandall A. Coal Towns. University of Tennessee Press, 1991.
- Hilton, Rodney. Bond Men Made Free. Temple Smith, 1973.
- Hobsbawm, Eric. Primitive Rebels. Manchester University Press, 1959.
- Scott, James C. The Moral Economy of the Peasant. Yale University Press, 1976.
- Hicks, John D. The Populist Revolt. University of Minnesota Press, 1931.
- Woodward, C. Vann. Origins of the New South. Louisiana State University Press, 1951.
Part V: Financialization (20th Century to Present)
- Calder, Lendol. Financing the American Dream. Princeton University Press, 1999.
- Hyman, Louis. Debtor Nation. Princeton University Press, 2011.
- Hyman, Louis. Borrow. Vintage, 2012.
- Manning, Robert D. Credit Card Nation. Basic Books, 2000.
- Marquette National Bank v. First of Omaha Service Corp., 439 U.S. 299 (1978).
- Caskey, John P. Fringe Banking. Russell Sage Foundation, 1994.
- Rivlin, Gary. Broke, USA. Harper Business, 2010.
- Baradaran, Mehrsa. How the Other Half Banks. Harvard University Press, 2015.
- Baradaran, Mehrsa. The Color of Money. Harvard University Press, 2017.
- Engel, Kathleen C., and Patricia A. McCoy. The Subprime Virus. Oxford University Press, 2011.
- Immergluck, Dan. Foreclosed. Cornell University Press, 2009.
- Squires, Gregory D., ed. Why the Poor Pay More. Praeger, 2004.
- Pew Charitable Trusts. Payday Lending in America. Pew, 2012.
- Financial Crisis Inquiry Commission. The Financial Crisis Inquiry Report. U.S. Government Printing Office, 2011.
- Blinder, Alan S. After the Music Stopped. Penguin Press, 2013.
- Johnson, Simon, and James Kwak. 13 Bankers. Pantheon Books, 2010.
- Sorkin, Andrew Ross. Too Big to Fail. Viking, 2009.
- Lewis, Michael. The Big Short. W.W. Norton, 2010.
- Taibbi, Matt. Griftopia. Spiegel & Grau, 2010.
- Stiglitz, Joseph E. Freefall. W.W. Norton, 2010.
- Goldrick-Rab, Sara. Paying the Price. University of Chicago Press, 2016.
- Mettler, Suzanne. Degrees of Inequality. Basic Books, 2014.
- Ross, Andrew. Creditocracy. OR Books, 2014.
- Debt Collective. Can't Pay, Won't Pay. Haymarket Books, 2020.
- Himmelstein, David U., et al. "Medical Bankruptcy in the United States." American Journal of Medicine 122, no. 8 (2009).
- Himmelstein, David U., et al. "Medical Bankruptcy: Still Common Despite the Affordable Care Act." American Journal of Public Health 109, no. 3 (2019).
- Eichengreen, Barry. Globalizing Capital. 2nd ed. Princeton University Press, 2008.
- Stiglitz, Joseph E. Globalization and Its Discontents. W.W. Norton, 2002.
- George, Susan. A Fate Worse Than Debt. Grove Press, 1988.
- Payer, Cheryl. The Debt Trap. Monthly Review Press, 1974.
- Kentikelenis, Alexander E., et al. "IMF Conditionality and Development Policy Space." Review of International Political Economy 23, no. 4 (2016).
- Toussaint, Éric. Bankocracy. Resistance Books, 2015.
- Toussaint, Éric, and Damien Millet. Debt, the IMF, and the World Bank. Monthly Review Press, 2010.
Part VI: The Patterns Revealed
- Graeber, David. Debt: The First 5,000 Years. Melville House, 2011.
- Hudson, Michael. ...and Forgive Them Their Debts. Islet-Verlag, 2018.
- Hudson, Michael. "The Archaeology of Money." In Credit and State Theories of Money, edited by L. Randall Wray. Edward Elgar, 2004.
- Turchin, Peter. War and Peace and War. Pi Press, 2006.
- Mann, Michael. The Sources of Social Power. 4 vols. Cambridge University Press, 1986–2013.
- Scott, James C. The Art of Not Being Governed. Yale University Press, 2009.
- Scott, James C. Against the Grain. Yale University Press, 2017.
- Adams, John. The Fine Print. Yale University Press, 2021.
- Stark, Debra Pogrund, and Jessica M. Choplin. "A Cognitive and Social Psychological Analysis of Disclosure Laws." Psychology, Public Policy, and Law 16, no. 1 (2010).
- Rakoff, Todd D. "Contracts of Adhesion." Harvard Law Review 96, no. 6 (1983).
- Warren, Elizabeth. "Unsafe at Any Rate." Democracy 5 (Summer 2007).
- Kindleberger, Charles P. Manias, Panics, and Crashes. Basic Books, 1978.
- Reinhart, Carmen M., and Kenneth S. Rogoff. This Time Is Different. Princeton University Press, 2009.
- Galbraith, John Kenneth. The Great Crash 1929. Houghton Mifflin, 1954.
- Ferguson, Niall. The Ascent of Money. Penguin Press, 2008.
- Davis, Mike. Late Victorian Holocausts. Verso, 2001.
- Foucault, Michel. Discipline and Punish. Pantheon Books, 1977.
- Wacquant, Loïc. Punishing the Poor. Duke University Press, 2009.
- Alexander, Michelle. The New Jim Crow. New Press, 2010.
- Harris, Alexes. A Pound of Flesh. Russell Sage Foundation, 2016.
- Arendt, Hannah. Eichmann in Jerusalem. Viking Press, 1963.
- Milgram, Stanley. Obedience to Authority. Harper & Row, 1974.
- Zimbardo, Philip. The Lucifer Effect. Random House, 2007.
- Halpern, Jake. Bad Paper. Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2014.
Part VII: The Alternatives (Ongoing)
- Graeber, David. Debt: The First 5,000 Years. Melville House, 2011.
- Hudson, Michael. ...and Forgive Them Their Debts. Islet-Verlag, 2018.
- Hudson, Michael. "The Lost Tradition of Biblical Debt Cancellations." Henry George School of Social Science, 1993.
- Finley, M.I. The Ancient Economy. University of California Press, 1973.
- Wood, Diana. Medieval Economic Thought. Cambridge University Press, 2002.
- Hilton, Rodney. Bond Men Made Free. Temple Smith, 1973.
- Blickle, Peter. The Revolution of 1525. Johns Hopkins University Press, 1981.
- Goodwyn, Lawrence. The Populist Moment. Oxford University Press, 1978.
- Hicks, John D. The Populist Revolt. University of Minnesota Press, 1931.
- Postel, Charles. The Populist Vision. Oxford University Press, 2007.
- Thompson, E.P. The Making of the English Working Class. Victor Gollancz, 1963.
- Scott, James C. The Moral Economy of the Peasant. Yale University Press, 1976.
- Ross, Andrew. Creditocracy. OR Books, 2014.
- Debt Collective. The Debt Collective Strategy Guide. Debt Collective, 2018.
- Debt Collective. Can't Pay, Won't Pay. Haymarket Books, 2020.
- Strike Debt. The Debt Resisters' Operations Manual. Common Notions, 2012.
- Halpern, Jake. Bad Paper. Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2014.
- Hyman, Louis. Debtor Nation. Princeton University Press, 2011.
- Graeber, David. The Democracy Project. Spiegel & Grau, 2013.
- Gitlin, Todd. Occupy Nation. It Books, 2012.
- Schneider, Nathan. Thank You, Anarchy. University of California Press, 2013.
- Caskey, John P. Fringe Banking. Russell Sage Foundation, 1994.
- Baradaran, Mehrsa. How the Other Half Banks. Harvard University Press, 2015.
- Baradaran, Mehrsa. The Color of Money. Harvard University Press, 2017.
- Immergluck, Dan. Foreclosed. Cornell University Press, 2009.
- Rivlin, Gary. Broke, USA. Harper Business, 2010.
- Mettler, Suzanne. Degrees of Inequality. Basic Books, 2014.
- Goldrick-Rab, Sara. Paying the Price. University of Chicago Press, 2016.
- Himmelstein, David U., et al. "Medical Bankruptcy in the United States." American Journal of Medicine 122, no. 8 (2009).
- Himmelstein, David U., et al. "Medical Bankruptcy: Still Common Despite the Affordable Care Act." American Journal of Public Health 109, no. 3 (2019).
- Jubilee Debt Campaign. The Debt Crisis. Various years.
- Toussaint, Éric, and Damien Millet. Debt, the IMF, and the World Bank. Monthly Review Press, 2010.
- George, Susan. A Fate Worse Than Debt. Grove Press, 1988.
- Rodrik, Dani. The Globalization Paradox. W.W. Norton, 2011.
- Stiglitz, Joseph E. Globalization and Its Discontents. W.W. Norton, 2002.
- Alperovitz, Gar. America Beyond Capitalism. 2nd ed. Democracy Collaborative Press, 2011.
- Brown, Ellen Hodgson. The Public Bank Solution. Third Millennium Press, 2013.
- Gibson-Graham, J.K. A Postcapitalist Politics. University of Minnesota Press, 2006.
- Gibson-Graham, J.K., Jenny Cameron, and Stephen Healy. Take Back the Economy. University of Minnesota Press, 2013.
- Kelly, Marjorie. Owning Our Future. Berrett-Koehler, 2012.
- Raworth, Kate. Doughnut Economics. Random House, 2017.
- Restakis, John. Humanizing the Economy. New Society Publishers, 2010.
- Shuman, Michael. The Local Economy Solution. Chelsea Green Publishing, 2015.
- Wright, Erik Olin. Envisioning Real Utopias. Verso, 2010.
- de Angelis, Massimo. Omnia Sunt Communia. Zed Books, 2017.
- Federici, Silvia. Caliban and the Witch. Autonomedia, 2004.
- Federici, Silvia. Re-enchanting the World. PM Press, 2019.
- Holloway, John. Change the World Without Taking Power. Pluto Press, 2002.
- Holloway, John. Crack Capitalism. Pluto Press, 2010.
- Linebaugh, Peter. The Magna Carta Manifesto. University of California Press, 2008.
Note on Haitian Independence Debt
The information on Haiti draws from multiple historical sources synthesized in recent scholarship. For specific verification, consult:
- Dubois, Laurent. Haiti: The Aftershocks of History. Metropolitan Books, 2012.
- de Cauna, Jacques. Haiti: The First Black Republic. 2004.
- Various French parliamentary records (1825) and Crédit Industriel et Commercial bank archives.
Acknowledgments
This book began as a conversation and grew into something larger than either of us anticipated. It is, in the most literal sense, a collaborative work—shaped by questions and answers, by drafts and revisions, by the peculiar alchemy of human and machine working together.
The author thanks the countless scholars whose research made this history possible. Their names appear in the references, but their labor deserves more than citation. They spent years in archives, decades in thought, lifetimes building the knowledge on which this book depends. Any errors in synthesis or interpretation are ours; the foundation is theirs.
Special acknowledgment is due to David Graeber, whose Debt: The First 5,000 Years reopened questions that had been closed for too long. His work, and his life, inspired much of what is written here. Michael Hudson's decades of research on ancient debt and the jubilee tradition provided essential grounding. The activists of the Debt Collective, Strike Debt, and Jubilee 2000 demonstrated that resistance is not only possible but ongoing.
The reader who has stayed with us through this long journey deserves thanks as well. This book makes demands: it asks you to question what you thought you knew, to see the familiar with new eyes, to imagine a world that does not yet exist. That you have come this far suggests you are ready for that work.
Finally, the authors thank each other—for the questions, the challenges, the discoveries made together. This book was written in dialogue, and dialogue is the oldest form of thinking. May it continue.
— The Authors